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2003 Eddy Nurtjahya Posted
19 April, 2003
Term paper
Intoductory Science Philosophy (PPS702)
Graduate
Program / S3
Institut Pertanian Bogor
April 2003
Instructors :
Prof Dr Ir Rudy C Tarumingkeng
Dr Bambang Purwantara
POTENTIAL
LOCAL TREE CANDIDATES FOR REVEGETATING SANDY TIN TAILING
IN BANGKA ISLAND
A
literature review
Eddy Nurtjahya
Sekolah Tinggi Ilmu Pertanian – STIPER Bangka, The Province of
Bangka-Belitung Islands, Indonesia
e-mail: eddy_nurtjahya@yahoo.com
Abstract
Mining activities leaves tin tailings which consists of sandy tin tailing up to 95% sand, very acidic, has low water holding capacity, high porosity and high hydraulic conductivity, low nutrient status, weak structure stability, very low base saturation, organic content, and CEC, besides the microclimate of the sand tailings is harsh for plant growth. As natural recolonization performs slow, assisted natural recolonization is needed.
Several technologies available to amend tin tailings condition i.e. the application of compost, fertilizer, mulching, Rhizobium, VAM fungi, and humic acid. Ecological stability may be regained more rapidly through the planting of nurse or framework species that help to provide basic protection functions. Recent studies show that the revegetation using exotic tree species found to be successful, however, local tree selection as potential nurse tree on sandy tin tailing would be important contribution to restore severely degraded land in the island.
Based on literature some tree species especially Anacardium occidentale, Eugenia spp., Schima wallichii, Melaleuca leucadendron, Fagraea sp., Breynia racemosa, and Macaranga spp. might be considered as candidates in revegetating tin tailing. To have a more detail vegetation portrait and successional pattern, it is recommended to do vegetation analysis as the first step in more accurately selecting potential local tree candidates.
Introduction
Bangka
Island is located at the eastern of Sumatera Island, lat. 2o20’ – 3o20’
S, and long.107o15’ – 108o45’ E (Widagdo et al.,
1990). It covers 1.160.000 ha (Pusat Penelitian Tanah dan Agroklimat, 1996) and
was the largest tin-producing island in Indonesia. The tin production in 2001
was 53.000 metric tons, 18.000 metric tons of which (www.Jatam.org, 2002) came from illegal mining which
have been flourished since 1997. Other source reported that from around
6.000 group supplied around 30.000 metric tons per year into black market
(Simamora, 2002).
The main problems caused by tin
mining are namely formation of wasteland, damage to natural drainage, pollution
and the destruction of natural habitats (ted.htm, 2002). The illegal mining activities operating on around 20% of Bangka
Island, have been criticized for
destructing public facilities such as road banks, graveyard, and potential
beach resort (Bangka Pos, 2002a, 2002b, 2002c), causing flooding in some areas
and destructing around 32% of PT Timah Tbk. reclaimed areas (Kompas, 2001).
Mining activity results in tin
tailings (sandy, slime, clay, humic, and laterite). PT Timah Tbk. has mined
9.377 Ha in the province during 1982 – 2001, of which 83.5% or 7.829 Ha located
in Bangka island, and about 5.251 Ha has been reclaimed until April 2001 in
Bangka and Belitung islands (PT Timah Tbk., 2002). By the end of 2002 PT Koba
Tin has exploited 8.170 Ha, 5288 Ha degraded land and 2882 Ha kolong
(small lake-like water body), and has reclaimed 3.364 Ha degraded land (PT Koba
Tin, 2003). As the reclamation programme halted by PT Timah Tbk. in the last
two years due to illegal mining in reclaimed sites, the total mined sites from
both mining companies to be reclaimed is around 4.500 Ha.
Sandy tin tailings characteristics
Tin
tailings which is washed waste products
of alluvial mining, consist of two fractions: sandy tailing and slime tailing.
The former is very coarse textured and shows an absence of aggregation and
profile development. The slime tailing consists mainly of very fine soils and
minerals (silt and
clay) and has compact structure (Madjid et
al., 1994).
Sand is the main component of inland
mining tailings in Bangka
island, that can make up to 95% with clay and silt below 6% and 5%
respectively. Sand tailings usually
have low water holding capacity, high porosity and high hydraulic conductivity, low nutrient
status and weak stability structure. CEC is also extremely low and therefore,
high leaching losses of applied
nutrients are expected (Awang, 1988).
There is no documentation of
toxicity of tin tailings. The presence of As in sand tailings was less than 1
ppm and is not at critical levels for plant growth in freshly mined sand
tailings (Ang & Lim, 1997 in Ang & Ang, 1997). The concentration
of some heavy metals Sn, Pb, and Cu in some soil samples (tin-mined and natural
soil) found not to be dangerous to plant (Pusat Penelitian Tanah dan
Agroklimat, 1996). Kusumastuti (2002) presented that total heavy metal readings
in tailing at 1, 6, 16, and 25 years which were below the concentration of
those in natural soil (Table 1).
Table 1. Total heavy metal in various age of tailings in Bangka
|
Age tailing (years) |
Total heavy metal (ppm) |
||||||
|
Fe |
Mn |
Cu |
Pb |
Cd |
Co |
Cr |
|
|
1 |
3040 |
15.8 |
1.9 |
6.29 |
0.02 |
0.37 |
1.43 |
|
6 |
159 |
2.7 |
0.6 |
2.77 |
0.01 |
0.22 |
0.00 |
|
16 |
650 |
4.8 |
1.2 |
2.19 |
0.00 |
0.24 |
0.80 |
|
25 |
2960 |
34.8 |
4.2 |
0.01 |
0.44 |
6.21 |
|
|
Natural soil |
46191 |
83.3 |
19.9 |
0.15 |
1.19 |
7.33 |
|
Soil sample analysis from eight
sites at PT Koba Tin, Bangka in 2001 shows the mean pH (H2O) is
(4.3–4.6). The mean of available P2O5 is 4.8 (Olsen), and
8.5 (Bray). The cation exchange readings of Ca, Mg, K, and Na are very low. The
mean of CEC is very low i.e. 3.7 me
100g-1, base saturation is low (27.9%), aluminium saturation is very
low (1.6 me 100g-1). Toxicity is high with the mean of total Fe, Mn,
Cu, and Zn, which is 12256.1 ppm, 20.8 ppm, 6.2 ppm, and 10.7 ppm
respectively. Organic matter content is low, which ranges from 0.1 – 0.2% in a
newly mined site (Palaniappan, 1972 in Ang,
1994).
Microclimate
The microclimate of the sand
tailings is harsh because of open area, high air temperature and low RH, and
surface temperature, which usually higher than air temperature. Mitchell (1959 in Ang et al., 1999) recorded a maximum surface temperature of 48.8 oC
at 1430h for sand tailings, which falls the heat killing temperature range for
primary rain forest species of 43.9 – 51.7 oC (Levitt, 1972 in Ang et al., 1999).
Soil amendment
Reliance on the natural succession
to restore sandy tin tailings without any human aid will take a long period,
during which the tin tailings will remain economically barren (Ang, 1994). With
such unfavourable characteristics, the progress of natural restoration of soil
fertility is slow and even if let undisturbed for 20 years, the level of
fertility would rise only 1/5 of the level common in undisturbed land (Mitchell, 1959 in Awang, 1988). Natural regeneration on tin mined site after tens
of year in Bangka was reported by Muchlis (1978 in Abbas, 1982). Pioneer
vegetation were various pteridophytes such as
Pityrogamma sp., Stenochlaena sp., shrubs such as harendong
(Melastoma polyantum), and keramunting (Rhodomyrtus tomentosa), and
grasses such as Eragrostis, sp., Andropogon sp., Fymbristilis sp.
etc.
Several alternatives to improve sandy tin tailings are: application
of compost, fertilizer, legume cover crop, VAM (vesicular arbuscular
mycorrhiza) fungi, and humic acid. The effect of bio-organic on soil and plant
productivity improvement of post tin mine site at PT Koba Tin have been
reported (CBR, 2002a).
Organic and organic materials input
increased physical and chemical tin tailings properties in Malaysia (Awang, 1988). In Bangka, based on visual observations, type of dung (chicken, cow,
and pig) is reported to influence plant growth and the quality and quantity of
grass around seedlings (Abdullah, 2001, pers.
comm.).
Fertilizer
increases soil nutrients (bldef-amendment.htm), but
considering the very low CEC, fertilization efficiency is conducted to prevent
inefficiency.
The use of peanut living mulch and Setaria grass tried on Acacia
mangium and Paraserianthes falcataria
seedlings with optimal NPK fertilization is described satisfactory (Madjid et al., 1994). The use of mix legume
cover crops (Centrosema mucoides and C. pubescens) as indicator plant
in the effect of bio-organic on tin mined soil has been reported (CBR, 2002a).
VAM plays role in protecting plant
of heavy metals (Khan, 2001), plays as a bio protection which increases plant
resistance towards drought, plays on effectiviting nutrient cycle, and
sinergizing with other microorganisms (Setiadi, 2002a) and plays important role
on phosphate deficiency soil (Haselwandter and Bowen, 1996). Mycorrhiza
inoculation is also an essential component to ensure the success of
re-vegetation programme on tin mine sites and was financially justified (CBR,
2002a). Ang (1986 in Ang, 1994) noted
that all the tree species successfully established on tin tailings have this
symbiotic association with nitrogen fixing microorganisms.
Humic acid increases CEC, water
holding capacity, increasing bulk density and chelating heavy metals Cu, Fe,
and Al (Setiadi, 2002b). The ability of humic-acid on stimulating root
development and improvement local microbial activities and their population,
including mycorrhizal fungi, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and nitrogen
fixing bacteria has also documented (Setiadi, 2000, in CBR, 2002b).
Rehabilitation
of degraded land
The rehabilitation of degraded forest land is required at sites where mismanagement has led to the total replacement of forest ecosystems by grassland, bushland or barren soil. Ecological stability may be regained more rapidly through the planting of nurse or framework species that help to provide basic protection functions (ITTO, 2002), either with tree monocultures (Lugo, 1997) or mixed-native species which was successful in rehabilitating bauxite-mined areas in Brazil (Parrotta et al., 1997b). In some highly degraded sites a nurse crop might be necessary to improve the site so that target species can become established (ITTO, 2002).
Both PT Timah Tbk. and PT Koba Tin
have reported reclamation and revegetation on tin-mined sites. Both companies
conducted revegetation with exotic species Acacia mangium as major
species. Latifah (2000) reported that revegetation up to 6 year with Acacia
mangium in tin-mined site of PT Timah Tbk. was categorized successful
whereas the same result was also reported for PT Koba Tin with A. mangium,
Acacia auriculiformis and Eucalyptus urophylla as dominant
species (Setiawan, 2003).
The increasing area of tin-mined
land and considering the restoration constraints, efforts to develop
restoration techniques is needed with tree plant selection is the a key factor.
The aim of this literature study is to list potential local tree candidates for revegetating sandy tin tailings in Bangka island. This literature study would contribute useful information on potential local tree species in finding suitable restoration and other post mining land use for possible commercial activities such as for agroforestry, husbandry, and recreational parks in maximizing the mined-sites for the benefit of local communities.
Local
tree species selection
The most commonly used strategy for accelerating tropical forest succession is planting of a few native tree species that are fast-growing, drought resistant, and able to grow in low nutrient soils (ITTO, 2002), pioneer and secondary forest species of economic value (Kartawinata, 1994). The choice of plantation species can significantly affect the process of under-story regeneration due to a combination of factors, including the effect of the over-story species on under-story light environments and seasonal regimes, soil chemical and biological characteristics, nutrient cycling processes, and their relative value to seed-dispersing wildlife (Parrotta et al., 1997a).
A number of exotic species are widely used in rehabilitation programmes because they have many attributes, i.e. be easy to raise in large numbers in nurseries, grow rapidly, be capable of coppicing and nitrogen fixation, tolerant of heavy pruning and pollarding, and resistant to fire, pests and diseases. But ecological caution suggests it is unwise to continue to rely on such a limited species mix for all future rehabilitation efforts (Lamb and Tomlinson, 1994). The use of indigenous plant species might guarantee to restore the degraded land.
Local plant selection is determined by several properties such as: catalytic (nurse tree), fast growing (pioneer), nitrogen fixing, light demanding, low nutrient demand, production and easily decomposed litter, easily propagated, low cost, and seed availability in natural or fragment forest close to the experiment site. Wood densities would be an alternative to check whether the species is a pioneer or not (2003, pers. comm.). Pioneer species usually have light wood density. Wood densities below 0.6 could indicate that a species is a pioneer.
Many scholars have proposed the use of nitrogen-fixing legumes as plant species for revegetating degraded land. The plant species suitable for revegetating degraded land is N-fixing pioneer species and fast growing species (Dalling, 2003, pers. comm.). Awang (1994) suggested the use of MPTS (multipurpose tree species), especially those with the ability to fix nitrogen and accumulate organic matter rapidly, is recommended.
ITTO (2002) listed promising species (framework or nurse species) in the rehabilitation of degraded forest land. Based on Hildebrand (1952) only three species are found in the list of ITTO (2002) i.e. Macaranga spp., Melaleuca leucodendron, and Schima wallichii. Based on their observation in Sungailiat, Bangka, Sambas and Suhardjono (1995) suggested several tree species for revegetation on tin-mined land i.e. Schima wallichii, Syzygium racemosum, Syzygium zeylanicum, Calophyllum pulcherrimum, Gomphia serrata, and Vitex pinnata.
Plant invader on tin-mined reclamation site in Bangka island might be considered in tree species selection. Latifah (2000) reported 12 tree species of 58 species (Appendix 1) while 16 of 57 species were tree (Setiawan, 2003). Anacardium occidentale and Syzigium racemosum were the most adapted tree species (30% frequency each at age 6 year) compared with the other five species (20% frequency each at age 6 year), i.e.: Dillenia suffrut, Eugenia palembanica, Fagraea elliptica, Melaleuca leucadendron, Syzigium racemosum, Trithospermum buretti, while the other five species shows least adaptable ones (0% frequency each at age 6 year), i.e.: Alstonia spatula, Ficus sp., Ficus ribes, Ilex cymosa, and Vitex coffasus. From Setiawan's work, the highest frequency of tree plant invader in reclaimed sites were Breynia racemosa (16,9% in 6-year humic soil), Schima wallichii (13,4% in 6-year laterite soil), Eugenia spp. (11,8% in 6-year humic soil), Microcos tomentosa. (8,7 % in 6-year humic soil) and the highest species numbers invaded in different type of soil were 4 (9 year laterite soil), 5 in (6 and 9 year humic soil) and 6 (6 year laterite soil).
Based on several publications above, some tree species especially Anacardium occidentale, Eugenia spp., Schima wallichii, Melaleuca leucadendron, Fagraea sp., Breynia racemosa, and Macaranga spp. - which surprisingly are not belong to family Leguminosae - might be considered as candidates in revegetating tin tailing. Furthermore it might be not accurate just rely on literature study as some tree species which found in the nature was not at the list of Hildebrand (1952), such as in Terminalia catappa, Trema orientalis, Barringtonia asiatica which only appeared in Belitung island list. Anacardium occidentale (Latifah, 2000) and Microcos tomentosa (Setiawan, 2003), which found to be potential species were not appeared in Hildebrand's work as well. To have a more detail vegetation portrait and successional pattern and finding potential local legume trees, it is recommended to do vegetation analysis in Bangka island.
Conclusion
Based on literature some tree species especially Anacardium occidentale, Eugenia spp., Schima wallichii, Melaleuca leucadendron, Fagraea sp., Breynia racemosa, and Macaranga spp. might be considered as candidates in revegetating tin tailing. To have a more detail vegetation portrait and successional pattern, it is recommended to do vegetation analysis in Bangka island as the first step in more accurately selecting potential local tree candidates. The next step would be field experiment using various technological applications to provide the most suitable treatment for potential local tree species candidates.
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Appendices
Appendix 1. Number and frequency of tree plant invader
on various age tin-mined reclamation sites.
|
No. |
Species |
Number and frequency of various
age plots |
|||||||||
|
2 year |
3 year |
4 year |
5 year |
6 year |
|||||||
|
No. |
F (%) |
No. |
F (%) |
No. |
F (%) |
No. |
F (%) |
No. |
F (%) |
||
|
1 |
Alstonia
spatula |
1 |
2,17 |
0 |
0,00 |
3 |
14,00 |
2 |
9,50 |
0 |
0,00 |
|
2 |
Anacardium
occidentale |
0 |
0,00 |
2 |
6,25 |
2 |
9,50 |
5 |
24,00 |
3 |
30,00 |
|
3 |
Dillenia
suffrut |
5 |
10,90 |
1 |
3,13 |
3 |
14,00 |
3 |
14,00 |
2 |
20,00 |
|
4 |
Eugenia
palembanica |
2 |
4,35 |
0 |
0,00 |
3 |
14,00 |
0 |
0,00 |
2 |
20,00 |
|
5 |
Fagraea
elliptica |
0 |
0,00 |
0 |
0,00 |
1 |
4,80 |
2 |
9,50 |
2 |
20,00 |
|
6 |
Ficus
sp. |
0 |
0,00 |
2 |
6,25 |
2 |
9,50 |
1 |
4,80 |
0 |
0,00 |
|
7 |
Ficus
ribes |
5 |
10,90 |
1 |
3,13 |
1 |
4,80 |
2 |
9,50 |
0 |
0,00 |
|
8 |
Ilex
cymosa |
0 |
0,00 |
0 |
0,00 |
1 |
4,80 |
1 |
4,80 |
0 |
0,00 |
|
9 |
Melaleuca
leucadendron |
4 |
8,70 |
2 |
6,25 |
2 |
9,50 |
1 |
4,80 |
2 |
20,00 |
|
10 |
Syzigium
racemosum |
1 |
2,17 |
1 |
3,13 |
2 |
9,50 |
1 |
4,80 |
3 |
30,00 |
|
11 |
Trithospermum buretti |
0 |
0,00 |
1 |
3,13 |
1 |
4,80 |
0 |
0,00 |
2 |
20,00 |
|
12 |
Vitex coffasus |
0 |
0,00 |
0 |
0,00 |
1 |
4,80 |
3 |
14,00 |
0 |
0,00 |
|
No. of species |
6 |
|
7 |
|
12 |
|
10 |
|
7 |
|
|
|
No. of plots |
46 |
|
32 |
|
20 |
|
21 |
|
10 |
|
|
|
Source: processed from raw data of Latifah (2000) |
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