© 2003 Edy Nasriadi Sambas                                         Posted  19 December 2003

Makalah Pribadi

Pengantar Ke Falsafah Sains (PPS702)

Program Pasca Sarjana / S3

Institut Pertanian Bogor

Desember 2003

 

Dosen:

Prof. Dr. Ir. Rudy C. Tarumingkeng (Penanggung jawab)

Prof. Dr. Ir. Zahrial Coto

 

 

 

POSSIBLE LONG-TERM EFFECTS OF THE HAZE WITHIN THE LEUSER ECOSYSTEM

 

 

 

By:

 

 

Edy Nasriadi Sambas

E061030121/IPK

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

The impact of the big forest fire in 1997/1998 not only stroked Indonesia but also the neighboring countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam, Thailand, and the Philippines.  Haze from the forest fire covered the above countries and forced them to close some of their airports for many days.

Based on the Leuser Development Program Annual Report of 1997/1998 (LDP 1998), there was a dense smoke haze over the southern half of the Leuser Ecosystem due to the widespread forest fires in Kalimantan and the southern half of Sumatra.  The haze threatened to close down program activities.  The Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) for Medan, North Sumatra (the relatively closest area to Leuser Ecosystem) on 27 October 1997 was 101 – 200, meaning that the air pollution reached “unhealthful” conditions and “alert” level (IFFM/GTZ 1998).

Forest and land fires can be a serious threat to the conservation of forest and biological natural environment as a whole.  Land and forest fires which take place again and again will not only speed up the decrease in soil fertility, but will also reduce the population of wildlife in the forest ecosystem and the vicinity.  Also, the soil structure will damage by the opening of soil surface.

The amount of damage or loss caused by the fire is affected by various factors, among other things the intensity and frequency, and also the pattern of the fire.  In Indonesia, the fire triggering factors are (1) abiotic aspects e.g., El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), (2) human aspects, and (3) forest burning in the process of land clearing (RDCB 1998).

 

 

POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF THE HAZE IN THE LEISER ECOSYSTEM

 

Haze consists of sufficient smoke, dust, moisture, and vapor suspended in air to impair visibility.  Haze caused by particulate matter from many sources including smoke, road dust, and other particles emitted directly into the atmosphere, as well as particulate matter formed when gaseous pollutants react in the atmosphere.  These particles often grow in size as humidity increases, further impairing visibility.

The effects of haze on humans and the natural environment are difficult to assess due to duration of the fires (land and forest fires) and haze.  This is also true for the Leuser Ecosystem.  During 1 – 2 weeks of the haze, as happening in 1997, the effects on biotic and abiotic components was not significant.  However, it is wise to prepare for the possible long-term effects of the haze within this ecosystem due to the highly valuable Leuser Ecosystem including the Gunung Leuser National Park.

The potential effects of the haze within Leuser Ecosystem are described into two categories, i.e., from gaseous components of the haze, and although may be overestimate, from the acid rain caused from dilution of the gaseous components with the rain.  The effects of the gaseous components are described as following :

 

  1. On Human Health

 

The emission of haze following a fire disaster has generally disseminated pollutants like H2S, SO2, Nox, CO, CO2, and dust particles.  A number of reports show that haze had been inhaled by the people almost everyday for two or three months would has proven to decrease their health condition.  Health disturbances experienced are acute infection of the throat (ISPA), bronchial asthma, eye irritation, bronchitis, pneumonia and skin irritations (RDCB 1998).

Short-term health impacts from particles include respiratory, eye, and skin irritations.  Sneezing, runny nose, eye irritation, dry throat and cough can occur at air pollution levels slightly above the standard level.  With increasing pollution levels, the symptoms are likely to aggravate into breathlessness, bronchitis, and asthma, reduced lung function in children, and cardiovascular disorders.  Long-term impacts may result in chronic obstructive bronchitis and asthma, permanently decreased lung function and cardiovascular disorders.  An increased risk of lung cancer is of particular concern, if particles deposited within the respiratory system are loaded with carcinogenic compounds (IFFM/GTZ 1998).

 

  1. On Plants and Animals

 

Although the dense smoke only lasted for 1 – 2 weeks, it is possible that the haze could impede photosynthesis process of the green plants.  In areas close to fires a further reduction in photosynthesis could be expected from smoke particulates adhering to leaf surfaces, thus forming a physical barrier to incoming solar energy and an impediment to gaseous exchange through leaf stomata.  Decreased photosynthesis reduces plant repair and maintenance activities such as leaf replacement and anti-predator toxin production, further weakening plants and increasing their vulnerability to disease and predators.  According to Bappenas (1999), there are some important secondary effects on biodiversity such as (1) primary productivity declines, leading to reduced plant growth and to disturbance to critical stages of plant development, attributable to reduction of solar energy by smoke haze from the fires, and (2) an expected drop in aquaculture and fisheries productivity from a reduction in available solar energy.

In practical, the possible effects of haze on terrestrial animals (especially the herbivores) are through the infected feeding trees (leaves, fruits etc.) and unhealthy air.  If the production of food decreases then the herbivores will starve and so further carnivores.  The haze may have both short-term and long-term impacts on respiratory health of the animals.  This in turn may affect long-term survival rates, if the individual does not have the ability to outrun predators or catch prey (WWF-IP 1997).

Sowerby and Yeager (1997) stated that in Kalimantan, birds were found in weak condition and could hardly breathe because of the smoke and haze.  They observed that birds which had to come out of their habitat seemed disoriented, flying beserk and often struck windows and hen died.  Activities of animals, particularly birds, mammals, and primates were disturbed by the thickness of the haze which occurred because of the fire.  Therefore, in the peak of the haze, the situation in the forest seemed very quiet (Sowerby and Yeager 1997).

The possible long-term effects of the acid rain within the Leuser Ecosystem can be described as following :

Sulfur dioxide (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) were released into the atmosphere as well as higher concentration of carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), by the combustion of fossil fuels especially from land and forest fires.  These oxides would be transformed into sulfuric and nitric acids by complex series of chemical reactions and removed from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface mainly by rain.  The resulting acid deposition would cause serious environment damage to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, i.e., human beings, flora, fauna, soil etc.  The attention should be paid for the possible acid rain due to dilution of the haze and other air pollutants by the rain on land and rivers even towards the estuaries (Singkil area).

 

 

MEASUREMENTS OF THE HAZE EFFECTS IN THE LEUSER ECOSYSTEM

 

Haze originating from large-scale forest and land fires is characterized by a high concentration of particulate matter.  Particulate matter consists of carbon and mineral bodies of different sizes, ranging in diameter from 0.001 to 100 micrometer.  Due to the specific emission characteristics of forest and land fires, haze is predominantly made of very fine particles with a diameter of less than 10 micrometer (IFFM/GTZ 1998).

The Leuser Ecosystem which covers about 1.8 million Ha (Forestry Minister Decree No. 227/1998) is one of the largest conservation area in Sumatra.  Administratively, it is located in Aceh and North Sumatra provinces.

So far, in the Leuser Ecosystem, there are three kinds of land uses need to be given special attention in relation to forest fires (land clearing) and the consequently haze created, i.e., plantation (mainly oil palm), forest concession areas, and illegal cultivation.  The Leuser Ecosystem does not have peat swamp commonly domed.  Yet, it has peat areas in the form of land types as (1) peat covered beach deposit, (2) shallow peat swamp, (3) permanently water-logged peaty flood plains, and (4) low peat-covered old marine terrace, with a total area of 155,053.60 Ha located in western/southwestern part of the ecosystem (LDP 1999, unpublished).  In fact, fires in areas of peat soils and in cleared conversion forest are identified as major contributors to smoke and haze production (Bappenas 1999).

To assess the impacts of possible acid deposition, there are multiple factors involved i.e., deposition acidity, chemical components, and soil sensitivity.  The effects on vegetation can be indicated by the degree of decline trees and abnormalities of leaves and branches.  I believe that the growth ring of the plants, especially the C4 plants, can be measured in relation to reduced ultraviolet/energy on photosynthesis processes.

In June 1998, Sambas (1999) made a 1 Ha plot at the Ketambe Research Station, Southeast Aceh Regency within the Gunung Leuser National Park, and recorded 81 tree species belonging to 54 genera and 32 families.  The plot was dominated by Paranephelium nitidum, Dendrocnide stimulans, Pometia pinnata, Aglaia odoratissima, and Eugenia zollingeriana.  The number of sapling species were 76 species from 54 genera and 30 families, and two of the dominant sapling species were Paranephelium nitidum and Eugenia zollingeriana.  With the voucher specimen of few species (e.g., P. nitidum and E. zollingeriana) of 1998 can be a starting point to measure the effects of the haze or acid rain on plants within the Leuser Ecosystem, perhaps with an annual measurement.  In addition, Purwaningsih (1998) also took a floristic data from a forest near Suaq Balimbing in 1997 and kept the voucher specimen at Herbarium Bogoriense.  Both places were under the haze in 1997 although differebt in thickness.

Likewise, data on the diversity of ichthyofauna within the Leuser Ecosystem i.e., from Suaq Balimbing in 1997 and Ketambe in 1998 had been taken and the specimen were kept at the Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense (Hadiaty and Munim 1998).  Therefore, the monitoring of the water quality of the fresh water in the Leuser Ecosystem is also should be considered.

 

 

MONITORING

The Leuser Development Program, joined with Gunung Leuser National Park authority, is supposed to monitor atmospheric conditions related to weather as well as some parameters relating to the ambient air quality.  One of the parameters measured is Suspended Particulate (TSP) concentration in air in which is directly related to haze intensity.  Other meteorological parameters such as horizontal visibility, relative humidity and wind velocity are useful indicators in understanding the haze phenomenon and forecasting its occurrence and dispersal.  In order to evaluate the impacts of haze on vegetation, appropriate indicator plants (plant groups) that are sensitive to haze should be selected.  Such indicator plants should be placed artificially at the monitoring site and the growth of these plants, as well as those of specified naturally occurring plants, should be monitored.

Monitoring sites should be established based on the considerations so that continuous observations of flora and fauna can be conducted at the same sites.  Sites should allow for continuous monitoring.  Based on the ecosystem types and the span control of LDP, the proposed monitoring sites are at least in three locations i.e., Singkil (peat/swampy), Lembah Alas (shifting cultivation), and a loggeg-over area in the eastern part of the Leuser Ecosystem (e.g. Sekundur).

The suggested monitoring program in the Leuser Ecosystem is as follows :

  1. Major measurements on haze monitoring should include: concentrations of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen monoxide, ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter of the air pollutants.
  2. Besides, the possible acid deposition should also be measured and covering chemical components in addition to pH, i.e., precipitation analysis, electrical conductivity (EC), concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, chloride, ammonium, and sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium ions (Anonymous 1995).  The selected sites are Alas and some smaller rivers, Laut Tawar and other smaller lakes/ponds.
  3. Monitoring on the abiotic and biotic components (excluding human beings) should cover :

a.       vegetation : degree of decline of trees and abnormalities of leaves and branches.

b.      wildlife : decline of the survival/fitness of the animals and their higher rate of mortality.

  1. Networking on haze monitoring with other related institutions i.e.,:

a.       Nationally :

(1)    LAPAN : -monitor smoke and haze spread through the NOAA and GMS satellites;

(2)    BMG :- predict and monitor the climate, temperature, rainfall, visibility distance, directions and velocity of the winds.

(3)    Ministry of Environment :- prepare guidelines on monitoring haze distribution and spread

(4)    Ministry of Forestry

(5)    Ministry of Agriculture c.q. Directorate General of Estate Crops

b.      Internationally : SE Asian Countries, European Union, WWF, US-EPA etc.

 

The related programs (with the haze monitoring) planned to conduct by the Leuser Development Program (LDP) based on the Work Plan for 1996/7 – 2003/4 are as following :

 

1.  To function five research station at strategic (representative) locations in order to gain two advantages i.e., (1) early phase data collection and possibly to monitor the development in the field via these stations, and (2) ecosystem security to be tightened because these stations are located in the strategic locations.  So far, there are three research stations namely Ketambe, Soraya (Sooutheast Aceh Regency) and Suaq Balimbing (South Aceh Regency).  One of the two research stations to be established will be in the eastern part of the Leyser Ecosystem.  With four or five stations, there are relatively adequate to monitor haze in the ecosystem.

 

2.  To monitor (1) the value of ecological indicators as an effective tool for monitoring biological diversity, (2) climate and water source, and global climate change internationally, and (3 ecosystem function in measuring functions such as CO2 sink, regularly water current and local weather, to document the role of swamp forest (peat swamp) in carbon adsorption.

 

RECOMMENDATIONS

 

The recommendations to be considered in the implementation of haze monitoring within the Leuser Ecosystem, i.e.:

  1. The degraded ( loggeg-over) production forest areas (forest concession): they undergo rapid conversion for non-forest uses and generate high combustible fuel loads in the process.
  2. Chemical composition of smoke and haze coming to the Leuser Ecosystem should be analyzed (sampling)
  3. Drying ferns and epiphytes as early warning indicators for fires.  Species selection must be considered well because indigeneous species highly site specific.  The existence of camphor tree (Dryobalanops aromatica) in Kluet and Singkil Swamps, and jurong fish (Tor sp.) on Alas River are other indicators for the environment quality control within the ecosystem.
  4. Establishing air quality monitoring systems.  Frequent monitoring of the health status of the population living in areas with a risk of haze by sampling schools, community centers etc.
  5. Air pollution standards to based on PM 10 and PM 2.5 measurements, as well as TSP for the haze.
  6. Establishing a meteorological database, a dust measurement and a meteorological  station (climatic monitoring station).
  7. Developing a network in data and information exchanges, cross sectoral between server and user.
  8. In implementing air quality observation, to develop facilities and techniques in measuring air quality.  LDP should contact Ministry of Environment.
  9. Developing a communication system with LAPAN, BMG and Ministry of Environment.

 

LITERATURE

 

Anonymous.  1995.  Acid Deposition: Monitoring Network in East Asia.  Guidelines for Monitoring Acid Deposition in the East Asia Region.  The Second Expert Meeting on Acid Deposition Monitoring Network in Asia.  19 pp.

 

Bappenas.  1999.  Planning for Fire Prevention and Drought Management in Indonesia.  Jakarta.  p 1-21.

 

Hadiaty, RK and Munim, A.  1998.  Diversity of ichtyofauna at Ketambe, Gunung Leuser National Park..  R & D Center for Biology –LIPI.  Bogor. 7 p (In Indonesian).

 

Integrated Forest Fire Management (IFFM).  1998.  Haze Guide.  8 pp.  Hazeguideupdatedinternet.

 

Leuser Development Program.  1998.  Annual Report.  Medan.

 

Leuser Development Program.  1999. Land System around the Leuser Ecosystem.  2 pp.  Unpublished.

 

Purwaningsih.  1998.  Structure and Species Composition of Suaq Balimbing Swamp Forest, Gunung Laeuser National Park.  Technical Report.  R & D Center for Biology_LIPI.  Bogor. p 63-67 (In Indonesian).

 

Research and Development Center for Biology (RCDB)-LIPI.  1998.  Present status of land and forest fire problems in Indonesia : Some basic inputs for constructing an integrated action plan.  Bogor.  107 pp.

 

Sambas, EN.  1999.  Flora Hutan Tepi Sungai Alas, Ketambe, Taman Nasional Gunung Leuser.  Technical Report.  R & D Center for Biology_LIPI.  Bogor.  pp. 1-6. (In Indonesian).

 

Soares, RV.  1999.  Fire Incident Monitoring and Reporting System.  IFFM 2nd International Workshop “Forest Fire Control and Suppression Aspects”.  Bogor Agricultural University.  Bogor.  10 pp.

 

Sowerby, J and Yeager, CP.  1997.  Fires Effects on forests, forest wildlife and associated ecosystem process.  Highland Seminar (internet).  5 pp.

 

WWF Indonesia Program.  1997.  Effects of Fire on Wldlife and Ecosystem Processes.  Highland Seminar. (internet). 2 pp.

 

 


Appendix 1

 

Map of Leuser Ecosystem