© 2002 Atien
Priyanti
Posted: 14 June, 2002
PPs 702 (Science Philosophy) paper assignment
Graduate Program/S3
Institut Pertanian Bogor
June 2002
Instructor :
Prof. Rudy C. Tarumingkeng PhD
INDONESIAN APPROACHES TO
TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION
FOR
LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT
By:
Atien Priyanti
EPN A.546010191
E-mail:
crian-1@indo.net.id
INTRODUCTION
The Role of Livestock Sub Sector in
Agricultural Development
Livestock
sub sector in Indonesia has had significant role in agricultural development,
since it has contributed 10-11% to agricultural and 2-3% to the national GDP.
While that of agricultural sector has contributed around 17% to the national
GDP, in which it had ever reached almost 60% to the national GDP in 1969.
During the period of 25 years, it can be shown that the contribution of
livestock sub sector to agricultural GDP has increased significantly, from that
of 6% in 1969 up to almost 11% in the year of 2000 (Statistical Book, 2001).
The average growth of livestock to agricultural GDP was close to 1% per year
and has shown a positive trend.
The
livestock sub sector providing almost all meat and eggs, and part of the milk
for domestic consumption. The Government of Indonesia is keenly aware of the
importance of the livestock sub sector as one of that a renewable supplier of
animal protein for human consumption. Rapid economic progress in Indonesia
during the last twenty years has brought rising consumer’s income which in turn
have led to the subsequent changes in consumption patterns that place
increasing demands in the development of the livestock farming in general.
During the year of 2000, per capita consumption of meat, egg and milk has been
increased by 22.8%, 23.4% and 24.3%, respectively compared to that of the year
1999 (Statistical Book, 2001). It has been indicated that there has been some
improvement of the society nutrition to could reach the animal protein
consumption standard of 6 g/capita/day (LIPI, 1998). The trend of having this
consumption from 1969 to the end of the year 2000 could be seen details in
Figure 2. In addition to that, due to the changes in the demographic
composition of the population and high urbanization, the livestock sub sector
in the twenty years to come will grow very fast compared to the others and it
could be predicted will have almost half of the total output in agricultural
development (Delgado, 1999). Continued growth in the livestock sub sector in
fact, absorbs Indonesia’s increasing labor force and to promote a stable
transition to an industrialized economy.
As an
agricultural country, most of people reside in rural areas, and agriculture is
the primary source of income. During the crisis, when most of industries and
banking companies bankrupted, the role of agricultural sector was very
important to employ the exodus of labor force from he bankrupted companies. The
size of the agricultural labor force kept to increase, which reached 26.6 million
in 1998 when Indonesia was in a deep crisis, while processing industry sector
only absorbed about 8.7 million (CBS, 1999). The structure of labor force in
1998, as an aggregate, showed that agricultural sector still has an important
role in creating job opportunity; the proportion is 59% from the total rural
labor force (57.48 million people). The proportion of agricultural labor force
in outside Java was higher than in Java (67% vs. 51%), by contrast, the
proportion of non agricultural labor force in outside Java was less than in
Java (33% vs. 49%). This means that there was a lack of job opportunity
diversification in outside Java, while the dependency on agricultural sectors
was quite high. Non agricultural activities in rural areas consist of trading
(13.6%), community services (8.3%), construction (3.3%), transportation and
communication (7.8%).
The
supply of meat has been contributed by broiler broiler, beef, mutton, chevon,
pork and meat of other animal species, while that of eggs are mainly produced
by layers, native chicken and ducks. Domestic beef production has never met the
national demand for beef meat, so that import of feeder cattle and meat has
been operation beginning in 1991 to balance the increasing domestic demand. It
is known that Indonesia has experienced being a net exported of live cattle in
the 70’s, until the rate of increase the demand for beef become faster and the
domestic production could not comply in the late 80’s. The increased demand on
beef has given a high pressure to the national standing stock and reduced
off-take rates, therefore, meat in the form of fresh or frozen meat (with or
boneless meat) import has become the only alternative being considered to
satisfy the national consumption. In contrast, export of broiler increased by
year beginning with 0.3 tons in 1991 to 703.8 tons in 2000 with trade values of
US$ 8700 to US$ 1,298,500 respectively (Statistical Book, 2001). Milk
production satisfy only 35% of the national demand, hence the rest has to rely
on imported milk. The Government of Indonesia has placed various regulations
for the dairy industry, such as import ratio, import tariff, import licensing
and restrictions, however, with the latest Presidential Instruction (Inpres
No.4/1998) in response to the 50 items commitment with IMF, all the regulations
have been lifted out. National egg consumption has been met by domestic
production since 1980’s, which indicates its potential for export. Export of
eggs from Indonesia could be considered small and negligible, which started in
1996 with only 60 kg of eggs and jumped to almost 6 tons of eggs in the year of
2000. This was a good sign that Indonesia has the potential to export chicken
eggs that is contrary to the situation in years before 1984 during which
Indonesia was a net importer of chicken eggs.
The
present state of the art of the livestock sub sector in Indonesia at the
present monetary condition is far from being satisfactory. However, this should
not encourage further development efforts as it is the most potential farming
that effects directly the well being of the people. To face challenges in the
simultaneous globalization and incorporation of profit and commercialization
approach, it is important to elaborate further the operational steps towards
livestock technology development. Improving location-specific farming systems
involves not only technological problems, but also includes appropriate
management systems, one of this is how to transfer the appropriate technology
to the farmers. The research and development (R&D) should start with the
users’ needs, continuing with users’ participation in the field testing and
ending with the technological results in the users’ hand to gain wider
acceptance in the community. The concept of adoption technology means a conscious
shift from commodity approach to become more contextual oriented research that
could fit production technology systematically to each unique agro ecoregional.
The objective of this paper is to provide some information on the Indonesian
approaches to technology adoption for livestock development which will be deal
with the provided and transfer technology for specific location and the role of
the new paradigm from the Agency for Agricultural Research and Development
(AARD) as the center research organization in Indonesia under the Ministry of
Agriculture.
Research Organization and Institution
Through
the Presidential Decree No.61 of 1998, the status, duties and function of the
AARD have been further improved. The AARD will certainly require greater
resiliency in facing difficult and more complicated challenges to the
Indonesian agricultural sector as the third millennium approaches. The main
agricultural R&D program consists of seven general and inter-related
topics, they are (AARD, 1999):
1.
Main program
agricultural resource research,
2.
Main
program research on improvement of genetic potential,
3.
Main
program biotechnology research,
4.
Main
program assessment and development of location specific technology and
agricultural farming systems,
5.
Main
program socio-economic and policy research,
6.
Main
program communication of research results, and
7.
Main
program institutional development.
The main duties
and function of the AARD are widely divided into several Structural Echelon II
work units, in accordance with their defined primary duties. Those main duties
cover:
1.
Technical
and administration services, and
2.
Guidance
and program formulation, and
3.
Communication
guidance, library management, science and technology (S&T) information
transfer, and research communication, and
4.
Implementation
of various disciplinary fields of research (socio-economic, agro-climate,
agricultural equipment and machinery), and
5.
Commodity
research implementation (livestock, food crops, horticulture and estate crops).
The main duties and functions of each
Echelon II work unit are further exhaustively divided into lower echelon work
units and researcher groups and installations of technical implementing units
that handle research fields and commodities concerned. The Central Research
Institute for Animal Sciences (CRIAS) has assigned tasks on the
implementation of research and development on animal sciences, in which
consists of two research institutes, namely the Research Institute for
Animal Production (RIAP) and the Research Institute for Veterinary
Sciences (RIVS). These Research Institutes should perform animal
commodity research as a whole, starting from evaluation, characterization and
sustaining genetic resource, improvement of genetic potential, post harvest and
processing. Furthermore, to push more fulfilling needs of technology generated
from research in certain fields, the research stations to support the above
work have been established.
The Role of Assessment Institutes for
Agricultural Technology
Appropriate
agricultural technology application has a location-specific requirement in
accordance with local unique agro-ecological zone and socio-economic
conditions. This means that adaptive research and technology engineering must
be carried out in the area where the technology will be utilized. In the early
1990’s the AARD responded to these challenges by establishing Assessment
Institutes for Agricultural Technology (AIATs) in every province in Indonesia.
The AIATs were created by the Ministry of Agriculture’s Decree No.798/Kpts/OT.210/12/94
on December 13, 1994 as institutions under AARD at provincial level to (a) to
provide the regionalization and decentralization of agricultural R&D,
taking into account the local agricultural resource diversity, (b) to encourage
the acceleration of agricultural rural development in related regions with
agribusiness orientation through the preparation of the local specific
agricultural technology package engineering, and (c) to accelerate technology
transfer to users and the dissemination of feed back to improve national
agricultural research program and commodity research (CASER, 1997). Henceforth,
this agricultural research network must accelerate the provision of location
specific technology as well as enhance the diffusion and adoption of research results
that can reach livestock farmers throughout Indonesia. Similarly, a problem
solving feedback mechanism to address production constraints being faced in
each locality can be used immediately channel information through the AIATs to
reach the appropriate the National Research Institutes (NRIs) and the Central
Research Institutes (CRIs) for more rapid response and solution.
Each
AIAT will assess research results produced by the NRIs and CRIs and other
external research institutions, such as the Universities, Agency for Technology
Assessment and Application, Indonesian Institutes for Sciences, private sector
and other foreign institutions. The AIATs will use the assessment, adaptation
and development approaches of participatory farming and extension systems
development which are relevant to each set of unique local agro-ecosystems and
set of socio-economic conditions. These R&D activities will be supported by
characterization of the current condition of utilization of natural resources,
research on agricultural development policy alternatives and research
communication enhancement. Research communication development will be directed
toward establishment of a collaborative communication network among various
research institutions so that livestock technology innovations can be rapidly
exploited for agricultural development. The organization and institution
relationship of AIATs has been shown details in Figure 4.
Provide Specific-Location Technology and
Technology Transfer
A
new technology will be relevant to a group of farmers if it responds to their
needs. The extent and speed of adoption is one way to assess the relevance of a
technology that is widely available. Some of the introduced technologies by
NRI’s /CRI’s have been used by empirically by some farmers, however, it is
avoided by the others. The phenomena indicates that technology cannot be
generalized elsewhere, in which it requires deeper understanding of the
environmental interactions (farmers, land, cultural and technology), implying
that introduced technology should be location-specific (Francis and Hildebrand,
1989 in Norman and Douglas, 1994). Why technology is adopted at one site, while
rejected by others can be answered by CRIs or NRIs for finding appropriate
farming innovations and to provide awareness to the research community. A
number of variables concerning the characteristics of the technology itself
help determine the extent of adoption, among these are (a) the profitability
and social acceptability of the introduced technology, its importance to the
producers’ production systems, ease of access, timing of availability, degree
of changes to current practices required in using the new technology, and
whether or not it was developed in response to a clearly articulated demand
from the producers or extensions (Soedjana and Kristjanson, 2001).
The involvement of farmers at various
stages of the research process is a central objective and responsibility to
succeed the adoption introduced technology. Therefore, the AIATs needs to have
direct links with farmers to ensure that the technology developed is relevant
to them, as inputs from technology transfer workers alone will not be
sufficient. Seegers and Kaimowitz (1989) has shown that even though feedback
from extension to research is more common in a system with good resources,
extension workers are usually not the main source of researchable ideas.
Therefore, livestock research must be not only innovative, but also relevant to
the final users of its products (the farmers), and its results must be broadly
disseminated. There are four complementary sets of links to ensure that
research result are relevant to farmers, i.e. (a) direct links between
researchers and farmers, (b) links between on-farm and of-station researchers,
(c) links between researchers and technology transfer workers, and (d) links
between technology transfer workers and farmers (Merrill-Sands and Kaimowitz,
1989).
For livestock
farming, research has included the improvement of feed quality utilizing
biological technology in addition to producing more efficient animal output
from the rations. In addition to that, food feed systems is also considered to
be one of the researchable areas based on the local resources. Feeding
techniques and nutritional aspects are among the strategies to be developed to
suppress the cost of livestock production. The veterinary research area will be
directed to obtain biological products that can be used directly to prevent or
to control undesirable epidemic diseases. The technology of enhancing animal
production efficiency such as artificial insemination, embryo transfer, and
sexing may be implemented through a multi-disciplined scientific approach to
comprehensively enable production increase.
Upstream Linkages
By the
establishment of AIATs, Indonesia has created a three-stage flow model of
knowledge and technology transfer. Technology generated from the NRIs and/or
CRIs should be passed on to the AIATs for local testing, assessment and
repackaging and then on to extension agents and the farmers. Under this model,
the AIAT becomes the focal point and may function cost effectively if it had
functional upstream linkage with NRIs and CRIs, a horizontal linkage with other
AIATs and a functional downstream linkage with extension agencies, farmer leaders
and other local technology dissemination mechanism. In several AIATs the
linkages with relevant NRIs and CRIs are still limited, ad hoc or weak. In
certain cases, the constraint is funding for collaborative activities, while
the other problem is the lack of a clear institutional arrangements for an
efficient linkage between the NRIs/CRIs and the AIATs.
To
institutionalize a functional linkage between the AIATs and relevant NRIs and
CRIs, AIATs need to allocate a regular budget and designate research specialists
to work with staff at the appropriate NRIs and CRIs who are assigned to work
regularly with all relevant AIATs. On the other hand, the NRIs and CRIs should
also have regular budget for this purpose and a small unit with designated
staff to work closely with the AIATs designated staff. They should meet or
visit regularly to give feedback and to receive new findings and technology
from the NRIs and CRIs. In addition, the AIATs designated staffs in a given NRI
or CRI could exchange experiences with each other during those meeting. Other
mechanisms of AIAT/NRI and CRI linkages could include collaboration in
multi-location trials and regular exchange of publications and research or
extension materials. A more active use of the available internet must be an
important component of the linkage between the NRIs/CRIs and the AIATs and
between the AIATs.
Downstream Linkages with Extension and
Farmers
Almost all of
the AIATs in Indonesia had active linkage with the local extension system, the
livestock services and farmer leaders. This link was also evident with the
regional university and the private sector. Some AIATs are introducing
innovative mechanisms as linking the regional research institution with farmers
such as the use of “Contact Tani” and the use of “Grouped Barn” for cattle
raising in a certain areas in Java. Therefore, the establishments of AIATs
constitute an effective major linkage between research and extension at the
local level in Indonesia. It has significantly increased the testing, packaging
and availability of appropriate technology for wider dissemination by the
extension system to larger number of farmers and other end users.
Even though
Indonesian farmers, in general, are getting more educated and development
oriented, the level of progress is different from one province to another.
Differences even occur among locations within a province. It is generally true
to say that the western part of Indonesia is more advanced than the eastern
part in view of farmer’s technology adoption and farm business facilities and
services available. Farmers in western part of Indonesia are also more exposed
to technological information and, therefore, are more progressive in seeking
better ways to optimize the agricultural activities (Martaamidjaja, 1999). This
unequal level of farmers’ progress has posed a challenge to both extension and
research community to develop location-specific extension programs supported by
provision of appropriate technologies that are suitable to the specific farming
system of respective localities.
The
increasing participation of the private sector and NGOs in livestock R&D
has posed a challenge to the extension and research community. It implies a
fact that a participatory and cooperative undertaking has been the underlying
policy of extension and research, its realization has yet to be attained. To
promote a possible privatization of R&D to increase livestock production is
a need by simplifying bureaucratic procedures to allow private sector
involvement. As an effort to explore, exploit and disseminate S&T, incoming
technologies should be accepted from various R&D institutions as well as
the private sector. The technology in the form of livestock development in
S&T information may not exist without developing communication,
collaboration and partnership systems. Therefore, the establishment of an
S&T information network needs to be initiated, for both internal and
external uses.
The
CRIAS held a regular national seminar every year to disseminate the research
results which allows discussion and formulation of getting partnership and
collaboration research. In the last three years, CRIAS had also invited
international speaker during the national seminar to enhance the information
exchange and knowledge as well as to get the opportunity having the new
research collaborations. The research results dissemination is commonly
performed through the national exhibitions and information meetings with the clients
from various communities. The response of these events were quite good and
satisfaction which indicated by number of participants involved has increased
from year to year. The other approach on the research resulted by CRIAS has
been done by publishing a regular journal four times in a year (what so called
Animal Production and Veterinary Journal) as well as bulletin on the scope of
livestock development (Wartazoa). The problem is the publication would not be
able to reach all field extension workers, usually just to selected people.
In
Indonesia, livestock technologies have had very little impact on production and
productivity at the farm level, even though livestock provides more than only
food, for example, draught power, manure and fibers. The most important motive
for keeping livestock is the function of capital assets. Farmers in Central
Java proposed 78 technologies to be assessed, but AIAT Ungaran only published
34 assessment-based technologies from which only 18% met the farmers’ requirements
(Surachman and K.B. Prajogo, 199). This fact has shown that planning and
determination for developing new technology need to be improved. These problems
were probably caused by the methodology implemented and using inappropriate
instruments, or inefficiency of the feedback flow that came from the farmers to
the researchers. Or, it could be caused by many research publications mainly
covered technology components which are based on pure science, and those are
printed in scientific language that was hard for extension workers to
understand, even more the farmers. Therefore, research or assessment findings
should be more attractively presented and understandable to farmers.
Agricultural
research as well as for livestock sub sector is expected to produce innovations
to be adopted by users, in this case for farmers through the field extension
workers, AIATs and straight forward to the private sector. This adoption will
eventually have impacts on the farming practices. The development of new technology
appropriate for adoption by farmers should be the main objective of the R&D
program. At the initial stage of the research process, the criteria used to
evaluate whether the new technology is or is not potentially beneficial and
acceptable to farmers need to be considered. Factors that most frequently
affecting adoption of technological innovations include farm size, land tenure,
labor availability, credit and market access, risks and uncertainty, human
capital and sociological factors.
Concerns
about the lack of adoption in livestock new technology to the production and
productivity at the farm level being a major engine behind the works of a
systems research. This may quite different of being adopted by the private
sector, in which most belong to the multi-national firms. Therefore, a systems
research work that has aimed to overcome the problem of limited adoption by
farmers through the involvement of the farmers in the earliest stages of
technology development is a need. This insures that the new technologies are
compatible with farmers’ needs. Based on this, some observers had suggested
that rapid adoption by farmers was the proper evaluation criterion for the
appropriateness of new technology and implicitly for the validity of the
procedures used to generate technology.
Another
challenge for today’s R&D community is the growing need for promoting the
strategic research and facing the technology commercialization era. A
technology innovation of the technology and economically valuable is meaningless
if its application can not be dissem8inated, or in other words if technology is
not performed the common types of technology transfer are giving as free of
charge, sold and licesened. Livestock R&D are currently still focusing the
research activities on providing packages of technologies to support national
or local government projects. Facing the decentralization and autonomy
globalization such kind of activities should be eliminated if it does not fit
into the regional prioritization and main resources. Less attention is given to
the technologies needed by farmers of marginal areas as well as of specific
groups of the agricultural community, for instance, poor farmers. Livestock
R&D needs to give more attention to these particular groups of society because
of social justice and equality reasons.
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